8. LED Blink

Key Peripherals Used:

1. GPIO:  To connect the LED.

STM32 Hardware Connection

We can connect an LED to any GPIO. So, we will connect the LED to the GPIO pin PA8(D7).

Circuit Diagram

STM32 Firmware Implementation

Project Setup in STM32CubeIDE

1. Create a Project
   1. Open STM32CubeIDE and start a new project, select the NUCLEO-F103RB board.
2. Basic Configuration (via CubeMX inside CubeIDE)
   1. Clock: Keep the default internal oscillator (no custom changes needed).
   2. GPIO Configuration:
      1. LED: Set PA8 (D7) as GPIO Output Push-Pull in the Pinout view (via STM32CubeMX, built into CubeIDE).
3. Code Generation
   1. CubeMX will automatically generate all the startup code, including:
      1. HAL_Init() → Initializes the HAL library.
      2. SystemClock_Config() → Configures system clock.
      3. MX_GPIO_Init() → Configures GPIO pins.
   2. This code sets up the hardware and prepares the project for firmware development, so we only need to add our application logic in the user code sections

Code Snippets from main.c

GPIO Initialization

This configuration is generated inside MX_GPIO_Init(), where PA8 is set as a push-pull output with low speed, suitable for driving an LED.

// Inside MX_GPIO_Init()

GPIO_InitStruct.Pin = GPIO_PIN_8;
GPIO_InitStruct.Mode = GPIO_MODE_OUTPUT_PP;
GPIO_InitStruct.Speed = GPIO_SPEED_FREQ_LOW;
HAL_GPIO_Init(GPIOA, &GPIO_InitStruct);

Pin/LED Macros for Code Readability

These macros make your code more readable by giving meaningful names to the LED's port and pin.

#define LED_PORT GPIOA         // GPIO port connected to the LED

#define LED_PIN  GPIO_PIN_8    // GPIO pin connected to the LED

Main Firmware Logic 

The LED state is controlled inside an infinite loop (while (1)) by using the HAL functions:

• HAL_GPIO_WritePin() — to set or reset the output state of PA8.
• HAL_Delay() — to create a delay in milliseconds between state changes.

We can implement either of the two common wiring configurations to toggle the LED, depending on how the LED is connected to our hardware:

Method 1: Source Current Configuration

(Anode connected to PA8, cathode connected to GND through a resistor)

• LED ON: Set PA8 HIGH.
• LED OFF: Set PA8 LOW.

while (1) {
    // Turn LED ON
    HAL_GPIO_WritePin(LED_PORT, LED_PIN, GPIO_PIN_SET);
    HAL_Delay(400);  // Wait for 400 milliseconds
    // Turn LED OFF
    HAL_GPIO_WritePin(LED_PORT, LED_PIN, GPIO_PIN_RESET);
    HAL_Delay(800);  // Wait for 800 milliseconds
}

Method 2: Sink Current Configuration

(Cathode connected to PA8, anode connected to VCC through resistor)

• LED ON: Set PA8 LOW
• LED OFF: Set PA8 HIGH

while (1) {
    // Turn LED ON
    HAL_GPIO_WritePin(LED_PORT, LED_PIN, GPIO_PIN_RESET);
    HAL_Delay(400);  // Wait for 400 milliseconds
    // Turn LED OFF
    HAL_GPIO_WritePin(LED_PORT, LED_PIN, GPIO_PIN_SET);
    HAL_Delay(800);  // Wait for 800 milliseconds
}

Download Complete Project

The complete STM32CubeIDE project (including .ioc configuration, main.c, and HAL files) is available here:

📥Download Project

ESP32 Circuit Connections

ESP32 Firmware Implementation

We want to blink an LED such that it stays ON for 400 milliseconds and OFF for 800 milliseconds, repeating this cycle continuously.

Method 1: Source Current (Sourcing Mode)

• Turn ON the LED: Set GPIO pin HIGH
• Turn OFF the LED: Set GPIO pin LOW

Code for Method 1 (Source Current):

//Hardware configuration
#define LED_PIN 4

//Timing configuration
#define ON_TIME_MS 400
#define OFF_TIME_MS 800

//Initialize the hardware
void setup() {
  pinMode(LED_PIN, OUTPUT);
}

void loop() {
  digitalWrite(LED_PIN, HIGH);  // LED is turn on
  delay(ON_TIME_MS);            // wait for 400 millisecond
  digitalWrite(LED_PIN, LOW);   // LED is turn off
  delay(OFF_TIME_MS);           // wait for 800 milliseconds
}

Method 2: Sink Current (Sinking Mode)

• Turn ON the LED: Set GPIO pin LOW
• Turn OFF the LED: Set GPIO pin HIGH

Code for Method 2 (Sink Current):

//Hardware configuration
#define LED_PIN 4

//Timing configuration
#define ON_TIME_MS 400
#define OFF_TIME_MS 800

//Initialize the hardware
void setup() {
  pinMode(LED_PIN, OUTPUT);
}

void loop() {
  digitalWrite(LED_PIN, LOW);  // LED is turn on
  delay(ON_TIME_MS);            // wait for 400 millisecond
  digitalWrite(LED_PIN, HIGH);   // LED is turn off
  delay(OFF_TIME_MS);           // wait for 800 milliseconds
}

Code Explanation:

• pinMode(led, OUTPUT); - In setup(), configures pin 4 as an output pin.
• digitalWrite() - To turn the LED on/off.
• delay() - Used to provide a delay in milliseconds.

Precaution

ESP32 GPIOs can source/sink up to 40mA, but are practically limited to ≤12mA to ensure reliability.
When sourcing current (GPIO set HIGH at 3.3V), the voltage drops with increasing current, indicating internal resistance (~20–40Ω).

E.g.

• When we withdraw 0mA GPIO voltage: ~3.3v
• When we withdraw 10mA, GPIO Voltage: ~2.95v
• When we withdraw 11mA, GPIO Voltage: ~2.8 v

Arduino UNO Circuit Connections

Arduino UNO Firmware Implementation

We want to blink an LED such that it stays ON for 400 milliseconds and OFF for 800 milliseconds, repeating this cycle continuously.

To control the LED, we toggle the GPIO pin by setting it either HIGH or LOW, depending on the wiring method used.

Method 1: Source Current (Sourcing Mode)

• Turn ON the LED: Set GPIO pin HIGH
• Turn OFF the LED: Set GPIO pin LOW

Code for Method 1 (Source Current):

const int led = 4;                //  LED is connected to the pin 4                 

void setup() {
 pinMode(led, OUTPUT);            // Set the LED pin as an output
}

void loop() {
  digitalWrite(led, HIGH);        // LED is turn ON
  delay(400);                     // waits for a 400 msec second
  digitalWrite(led, LOW);         // LED is turn OFF
  delay(800);                     // waits for a 800 msec second

}

Method 2: Sink Current (Sinking Mode)

• Turn ON the LED: Set GPIO pin LOW
• Turn OFF the LED: Set GPIO pin HIGH

Code for Method 2 (Sink Current):

const int led= 4;                //  LED connected pin 4                       
void setup() {
  pinMode(led, OUTPUT);          // Set the LED pin as an output
}
void loop() {
  digitalWrite(led, LOW);         // LED is turn ON
  delay(400);                          // waits for a 400 msec
  digitalWrite(led, HIGH);        // LED is turn OFF
  delay(800);                            // waits for a 800 msec
}

Code Explanation:

• const int led = 4; - Declares a constant integer variable named "led" with value 4, meaning the LED is connected to digital pin 4.
• pinMode(led, OUTPUT); - In setup(), configures pin 4 as an output pin.
• Both use digitalWrite() to turn the LED on/off and delay() to create timing.
• Method 1 Behaviour:
  • The LED turns ON (HIGH) for 400ms, then OFF (LOW) for 800ms
• Method 2 Behaviour:
  • The LED turns ON (LOW) for 400ms, then OFF (HIGH) for 800ms

Precautions:

• However, we know that the source and sink current of the GPIO is 40mA. However, we should not exceed the current of 20mA practically.
• Also, when we withdraw current through GPIO HIGH, i.e., 5 volts, its voltage drops with respect to the current drawn.
  • I.e. when we withdraw 0mA GPIO voltage: 4.98v
  • When we withdraw 10mA, GPIO Voltage: 4.75V
  • When we withdraw 20mA, GPIO Voltage: 4.50V

This shows that GPIO has an internal resistance of 25 ohms.

Output